Al

Al-Razi Essay The well-known writer George Sarton says in his Introduction to the History of Science that Rhazes was the greatest physician of Islam and the Medieval Ages. And the Encyclopedia of Islam remarks that Rhazes remained up to the 17th century the indisputable authority of medicine. The Bulletin of the World Health Organization (WHO), May 1970, pays tribute to him by stating: His writings on smallpox and measles show originality and accuracy, and his essay on infectious diseases was the first scientific treatise on the subject. Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn Zakariya Al-Razi was born at the Persian city of Ray near modern Tehran, Iran in c. 864 AD. It is said that early in his life Al-Razi was interested in singing and music besides other professions. Because of his eagerness for knowledge, he became more interested in the study of alchemy and chemistry, philosophy, logic, mathematics and physics. But it was the field of medicine that he spent most of his life, practicing it, studying and writing about it. Due to his fame in medicine he was appointed head of the physicians of the Ray Hospital, and later put in charge of the Baghdad main Hospital during the reign of the Adhud-Daulah. Al-Razi was an iconoclastic cosmologist, who denied that any man had privileged access to intelligence, whether by nature or from nature. Al-Razi, who, though a theist, rejects prophecy on the ground that reason is sufficient to distinguish between good and evil and also that reason alone can enable us to know Allah. He also denies the miraculousness of the Koran and preferred scientific books to all sacred books. Al-Razi is considered to have been the greatest physician of the Islamic world. With reference to his Greek predecessors, Al-Razi viewed himself as the Islamic version of Socrates in Philosophy, and Hippocrates in medicine. Al-Razi was a prolific author, who has left monumental treatises on numerous subjects. He has more than two hundred outstanding scientific contributions to his credit, out of which about half deal with medicine and twenty-one on Alchemy. He also wrote on physics, mathematics, astronomy and optics, but these writings could not be preserved. A number of his other books, including Jami-fi-al-Tib, Maqalah fi al-Hasat fi Kuli wa al-Mathana, Kitab al-Qalb, Kitab-al-Mafasil, Kitab-al-Ilaj al-Ghoraba, Bar al-Saah, and al-Taqseem wa al-Takhsir, have been published in various European languages. About 40 of his manuscripts are still extant in the museums and libraries of Iran, Paris, Britain, and Rampur (India). His contribution has greatly influenced the development of science, in general, and medicine in particular. The greatest medical work of Al-Razi (Rhazes), and perhaps the most extensive ever written by a medical man, is al-Hawi, i.e., the Comprehensive Book, which includes indeed Greek , Syrian, and early Arabic medical knowledge in their entirety. Throughout his life Al-Razi must have collected extracts from all the books available to him on medicine. In his last years, he combined these with his medical experience into an enormous twenty volume medical encyclopedia. Al-Hawi was the largest medical encyclopedia composed by then. It was translated into Latin under the auspices of Charles I of Anjou by the Sicilian Jewish physician, Faraj ibn Salim (Farragut) in 1279 and was repeatedly printed from 1488 onwards. Al-Hawi was known as Continens in its Latin translation. By 1542 there had appeared five editions of this vast and costly work, besides many more of various parts of it. Its influence on European medicine was thus very considerable. (Arnold, T. Pg. 323-5). Throughout his works he added his own considered judgement and his own medical experience as commentary. His contributions lie mainly in the field of ophthalmology, obstetrics, and gynecology, but he also dealt with diseases like stones in the kidney and bladder. Al-Razi wrote a monograph on childrens diseases probably the first in the history of pediatrics. A special feature of his medical system was that he greatly favored cure through correct and regulated food. This was combined with his emphasis on the influence of psychological factors on health. He also tried proposed remedies first on animals in order to evaluate in their effects and side effects. Al-Razi was the first person to introduce the use of alcohol (Arabic Al-Kuhl) for medical purposes. He was also an expert surgeon and was the first to use opium for anesthesia. In surgeries, he was ahead of his contemporaries because he treated renal and bladder stones surgically. Al-Razi was the first to give an account of the operation for the extraction of a cataract and also the first scientist to discuss the pupillary reaction or the widening and narrowing of the pupil of the eye. He explained that the reaction was due to the presence of small muscles that act according to the intensity of light. The current understanding on this subject confirms his work. Kitab al-Mansoori, which was translated into Latin (known by the title Liber Almansoris) in the 1480s in Milan, comprised ten volumes and dealt exhaustively with Greco-Arab medicine. Some of its volumes have been published separately into German and French. The ninth volume of the translation made by Gerard of Cremona the Nonus Al-Mansuri, was a popular text in Europe until the sixteenth century. Al-Razi in Al-Mansoori devoted a whole chapter on anatomy. In it he has presented a detailed description of the various organs of the human body, and sensory and motor parts. He has also given elaborate descrip tions of the intervertebral foramina and the spinal chord, and correctly asserted that an injury either to the brain or spinal chord would lead to paralysis of the parts of the organs whose nerve supply was damaged or destroyed. In his Secret of secrets, he describes the chemical processes and experiments he had performed himself. He also gave in this book a description of a large number of chemical apparatuses. Al-Razi also compounded medicines and took keen interest in experimental and theoretical sciences. It is conjectured that he developed his chemistry independently of Jabir Ibn Hayyan (Geber), meaning all experimentation was in no way influenced by Geber or his conclusion. He has discussed several chemical reactions and also given full descriptions of and designs for about twenty instruments used in chemical investigations. His description of chemical knowledge is in plain and plausible language. One of his books Kitab-al-Asrar deals with the preparation of chemical materials and their utilization. Another one was translated into Latin under the name Liber Experimentorum. He went beyond his predecessors in dividing substances into plants, animals and minerals, thus in a way opening the way for inorganic and organic chemistry. By and large, this classification still holds. As a chemist, he was the first to produce sulfuric acid together with some other acids, and he also prepared alcohol by fermenting sweet products. Gay marriage Essay Written down on paperStored on paper file in cabinetFile located in cabinet Stock soldStock returnedMail order stockCount stockCheck for low stockCheck what stock has been sold Check for missing stockStock levelsStock files in cabinetStock history i.e. best sellers, poor sellers, low stock, etc. All files are stored in filing cabinet on paperInputs, processing and output requirments:Data StoresCustomer fileCustomer order fileStock fileSales fileInput RequirmentsCustomer detailsStock DetailsSales detailsProcessing RequirmentsCustomer joins membershipEdit customer detailsCustomer opts-outMake an orderCancel an orderNew stockBest sellersPoor sellersEdit stock pricesDelete unecessary filesOutput RequirmentsGraphs/charts on best sellersGraphs/charts on poor sellersGraphs/charts on popular customersCustomer details from member ID numberStock details from stock ID numberFinances reportInterview with end user:How is information currently kept or stored?We store information on paper. When customers phone in to order we write the order down on paper and then file it away in a filing cabinet. All ou information is stored on paper in filing cabinets. What type of information do you store in the filing cabnets?We store customer details, such as name, address, customer ID, etc. aswell as customer oreder details such as ordr ID, date of order,we also store information on all our stock which includes stock ID, stock title, price and quantity remaining. We also store information on the bestselling books and poor selling books. We would also like to store information on our most popular customers but am unable due to the time consumtion of looking through all our customers files!Could you please describe the proces of customer ordering?A customer phones the shop. Our sales assistant, Jaffar, answers. The customer is asked if they have a customer ID or are a new customer. If they are a new customer then an ID is created for them, if they are an existing customer then their customer ID is taken down along with their order. The order is passed onto the other sales assistant who deals with customer orders. He processes the order packs it a nd posts it then he files the order away under the customer IDs file. This whole process can take about 4-5 hours depending on the number of customer orders and other remaining tasks to be done within the shop. The orders are usually posted every evening but sometimes are posted the next day due to busy schedules the previous day. How long do you keep information on customers?Wellwe keep it for as long as it is needed, I mean its always in our filing cabinet unless we get a customer who asks to opt out as they do not wish to recive news letters and special offers through the post. When we remove a customers details we only move them to another filing cabinet where old members files are kept. We do not totally get rid of their details we just stop sending them information through the post. If they ask for their details to be removed from our files then we will comply with their wishes and destroy their information. How important are customer order histories?They are very important, because in certain cases where an ordewr does not reach a customer within 7 working days we have to check our records to see whether it was dipatched or not. If it was dispatched then we have a contact number for all our orders as they are always sent through recorded delivery. These histories are very important for us to give good customer service.